Nature Of Scandals Perpetrators And Their Roles Accounting Essay

A figure of accounting dirts have occurred within the past old ages, the consequence of which will go on to be remembered by the general populace. These dirts were blamed on series of factors, runing from hapless corporate administration to the compensation-plan of top direction. Two of the most dramatic and popular dirts were Polly Peck in the UK in 1990 and Enron in the US in 2001. These two dirts where different in their ain ways, but they end-results were similar – distraught stockholders lost their full life nest eggs, employees lost their occupations, creditors did non acquire paid back, and tonss more.NATURE OF SCANDALS, PERPETRATORS AND THEIR ROLESIn 1980, a company known as Restro Investment which was controlled by Asil Nadir bought 58 % of the portions of Polly Peck, a little company in the fabric industry for ?270,000. With this, he had control over the company and within 10 old ages of purchase, Polly Peck grew into a large company ( Wearing, 2005 ) . Within the ol d ages 1982 – 1989, turnover, pre-tax net income, and net assets rose from ?21 million to ?1.16 billion, ?9 million to ?161 million, and ?12 million to ?845 million severally ( Jones, 2011 ) . However, despite its first-class consequences, Polly Peck was unable to pay its creditors. What was surprising was that although Nadir had merely 25 % of the portions as at 1989, he still controlled and dominated the board and the company as a whole. Nadir extracted hard currency from Polly Peck and transferred it into its subordinate companies like Uni-Pac before he finally transferred it out for his personal usage. These backdowns would look in Polly Peck ‘s histories as sum owed by subordinates and would later be cancelled out as inter-company balance ( Jones, 2011 ) . An probe by the Serious Fraud Office ( SFO ) besides revealed that Polly Peck cooked up its assets in some of its subordinates so as to call off out the sum owed by these subordinates to Polly Peck. What besides made the dirt worse were the accounting policies adopted by Polly Peck which were in conformity to the demand of accounting criterions at that clip. In 1983, Polly Peck adopted the SSAP 20 ( Foreign Currency Translation ) and take to utilize the mean rate to interpret its profitless points. Therefore, when it restated its 1982 fiscal statement in line with SSAP, there was an addition of ?2.7 million in turnover and ?1.5 million in net assets for that twelvemonth merely. Hence, Polly Peck continued with its mean method in interpreting net income and loss points, and from 1983-1989, Polly Peck made a net income before involvement and revenue enhancement of ?599 million and within the same period, debited ?415 million to the net income and loss history due to the motions on exchange. Of this ?415 million, ?56 million was as a consequence of the usage of the mean method in change overing its net income and loss points, while the balance was due to the interlingual rendition of its openi ng net investings. Hence, Polly Peck continued to turn each twelvemonth, as motion on the exchange was inauspicious. Andrew Fastow, the CFO at Enron, was behind the creative activity of Particular Purpose Entities ( entities set up to transport out certain activities ) into which Enron could dump debts and generate income, thereby lead oning investors on the existent nature of their capital construction. With this, he was able to conceal debt worth over $ 1 billion in the SPEs. Besides, due to the fact that the US GAAP stipulated that such SPEs need non be consolidated if at least 3 % of its entire funding came from independent equity holders, Enron had the perfect alibi non to consolidate their statements with those of their SPEs. However, it was subsequently discovered that the equity was non really owned by independent 3rd party, but by Enron itself. Therefore, Enron should hold consolidated the SPEs in the first case. Besides, Enron ‘s CEO, Jeffrey Skilling pleaded with regulators to enable the company utilize the mark- to-market accounting method, thereby enabling him to set down $ 65 mi llion of net income for his section. This was entirely done to enable him run into analysts ‘ outlook and besides obtain the promised compensation of 3 % of the value of his section ‘s concern. Enron ‘s board of managers fell abruptly of their duties by puting aside the codification of moralss and leting illegal partnership to take topographic point. Besides, the board did non follow through the probe carried out by the finance section sing the compensation of Fastow. Although the board argued that they had no cognition about what was traveling on, the Powers Report stated that the board had failed in its oversight responsibilities ( Gown & A ; Abelson, 2002 ) . The audit commission at Enron had every right to look into the traffics that Enron was traveling into in order to halt it from the oncoming. However, they did non inquire any inquiries nor did they size up the boards ( Peel & A ; Hill, 2002 ) . Analysts on the other manus compounded the fraud by endorsing Enron and promoting people to purchase their portions even when the stock monetary value was falling. Whenever analysts opted to state otherwise, they would run into jobs with their employers. This was the instance of Chung Wu who was sacked by his director Price Webber because Chung sent an electronic mail to Enron ‘s investors stating them to â€Å" take some money off the tabular array † as the fiscal state of affairs at Enron was non looking good.Detriments TO STAKEHOLDERS OF THE ENTITIESOne of the negative effects of accounting frauds is the disadvantage it normally has on stakeholders like creditors, employees, stockholders, and any other individual or group of people who have a good involvement in the house. As respects Polly Peck, it was revealed that they owed over 1.3 billion to creditors. And to do affairs worse, these creditors merely received 4 pence for every lb they were owed. Besides, most stoc kholders every bit good as 1000 s of pensionaries lost all of their investing. Ten 1000s of employees besides lost their occupations. As with employees at Enron, they were deceived into believing that the company was still making good and were farther prevented from selling their stock or diversifying their portfolio even while the top executives were selling theirs. They watched haplessly as their life nest eggs vanished from their eyes. As a consequence of the dirt, the repute of top direction was destroyed and it led to some of them like Jeffery Skilling, Andrew Fastow, and Kenneth Ley being persecuted and later imprisoned. Sing the investors at Enron, both institutional and single investors lost a immense sum of their investing because they were deceived into believing that the house was still executing well.Regarding executives and senior direction, unethical patterns were paramount in Enron whereby those who played along were showered in compensations and wagess, while those who challenged the traffics were persecuted.GOVERNANCE ROLES THE BOARDS HAVE OVER THE ENTITIESThe board of managers are those who are re sponsible for guaranting that the company is being managed by the directors in the involvement of the stockholders, and they are responsible for keeping the ethical codification of the organisation. Board of managers are besides meant to supervise accounting patterns in order to guarantee conformity with accounting criterions, reappraisal wage strategies of top executives in order to forestall struggle of involvement arising, and guarantee independency of company ‘s hearers by revolving the audit house after every few old ages and forestalling the audit house from supplying both internal and external audit services.This was non the instance at Enron as the improper administration of its board of managers was one of the major jobs which led to its autumn. It can besides be said that there was weak administration at Polly Peck as Nadir was able to travel big amounts of money without any employees or managers oppugning him. This was likely due to the fact that Nadir was moving as both president and CEO, thereby giving him absolute power and control and besides due to the deficiency of effectual control system within Polly Peck ‘s caput office in London. The control systems were so weak to the extent that even the demand for double signatures on bank backdowns was absent.ROLE OF EXTERNAL AUDITORS AND AN ASSESSMENT AS TO WHETHER THEIR AUDIT DUTIES WERE FULFILLEDThe hearers of Polly Peck were Erdal & A ; co. ( Turkish subordinates hearers ) and Stoy Hayward ( UK- based group hearers ) . Erdal & A ; co. collaborated with Polly Peck in the uses of their histories and this led to the exclusion of Erdal spouses from the Institute of Charted Accountants of England and Wales, while Stoy Hayward was criticized on the footing of inefficiency in the appraisal of Erdal in transporting out the audit of the Turkish subordinates of Polly Peck ; inefficiency in reexamining Erdal ‘s working documents ; and failure to look into the causes of the unnatural growing in its subordinates. SAS 82 requires external hearers to look for fiscal and non-financial inducements as indexs of fraud while transporting out their audit responsibilities. Harmonizing to Apostolo et Al ( 2001 ) , there were two of these non-financial inducements present at Enron which were ignored by Andersen. They were: compensation being linked to aggressive accounting patterns, and direction ‘s casual attitude over the internal controls. Besides, Andersen did non describe the revenue enhancement turning away strategy used by Enron. From another point of position, the drastic alterations in the fiscal statements of Enron were supposed to hold made the external hearers leery. Such as: Why the operating income, Earnings per portion ( EPS ) , and gross borders fluctuated greatly between the old ages 1997- 2000 Why the stock monetary value increased enormously in 2000, when the EPS merely increased by a small per centum, and in fact gross border per centum dropped from 13.3 % to 6 % . With all this, it can be said that both Stoy Hayward and Andersen did non take a close expression at the ruddy flags which suggested that there could be fraud at Polly Peck and Enron severally.AUDITORS CONFLICT OF INTERESTSHearers ‘ struggle of involvement refers to a state of affairs whereby the personal involvement of hearers struggles with their fiducial responsibilities, therefore holding undue influence on their duties and forestalling them from moving in the best involvement of stockholders. This struggle of involvement can be existent or perceived. Arthur Andersen was Enron ‘s external hearer, supplying it with external audit services, internal audit services and consultancy services. Coupled with the fact that a big sum of the house ‘s fee was from its non-audit work instead than its audit work, it can be stipulated that there was a menace to the independency of Arthur Andersen, thereby taking to a struggle of involvement. In add-on, the relationship between Enron and Andersen ‘s employees was so close that at Enron ‘s office in Houston, it was hard to distinguish Enron ‘s employees from Andersen ‘s. To decline the state of affairs, Enron ‘s internal audit staff became Andersen ‘s staff when Enron ‘s internal audit division was taken over by Andersen. This depicts a true scenario of struggle of involvement as the independency place of the hearers has been compromised. Though Andersen argued that this relationship did non in any manner affect their independency place, it still was against the AICPA ‘s ( American Institute of Certified Public Accountants ) codification of professional behavior demand that external hearers should at all times give the â€Å" visual aspect of independency † in order to give credibleness to their work. In the instance of Polly Peck, the struggle of involvement that arose was on the portion of Coopers & A ; Lybrand, who were responsible for the disposal and receivership of Polly Peck. There was a struggle of involvement as they had portions in Polly Peck, audited its subordinates, served as advisers to the managers and reported on the company ‘s prospectus ( Sikka, 2004 ) . Besides as Polly Peck was one of Stoy Hayward ‘s most established clients, there was the possibility of struggle of involvement as Stoy Hayward would non desire to lose a major beginning of their income.LESSONS LEARNT FROM THE SCANDALSBefore the prostration of Polly Peck, stakeholders and the general populace found it difficult to understand how the company was doing its money even though it had no hard currency, but no 1 was making or stating anything about it, and there were no inquiries asked. Therefore, an of import lesson learnt is that inquiries should be raised and probes should be carried out when there is uncertainty, in order to place the possibility of a fraud before it ‘s excessively late. Besides, Asil Nadir was moving as both the president and CEO of Polly Peck, thereby holding so much authorization and power which means there was barely any segregation of responsibilities, doing it hard to acknowledge the fraud from the beginning. Hence, another lesson learnt is to hold two different persons moving as CEO and president, as stated in the Cadbury study. One of the lessons learnt from the Enron dirt is that hearers should be rotated after a certain figure of old ages so as to keep their independency. In the instance of Enron, Andersen was its hearer since its origin in 1983, hence, the stopping point relationship between Andersen and Enron. This likely led to Andersen overlooking the abnormalities of Enron. Besides, it was learnt that there should be a cheque on bonus-based compensation for employees, as this could hold made them beg any agencies to accomplish the declared fillip, even though it could be to the hurt of the company in the long tally.How were these lessons incorporated into subsequent codifications on corporate administration? Explain what these codifications aimed to accomplishAs a disincentive for the dirt in Enron happening in future, the Sarbanes Oxley act 2002 ( SOX ) was introduced. This SOX does non undertake the issue of corporate administration by implementing codification of best pattern or rule, but by puting more duties on managers and senior direction. For illustration, the CEO and CFO must attest that to the best of their cognition that the one-year study and quarterly studies do non incorporate an untrue statement or skip of immaterial fact and that the fiscal statements and fiscal information reasonably represent, in all stuff facets, the true fiscal statu s and consequences of operations of the company. Therefore, one of the purposes of the SOX is to do the CEO and CFO guarantee that fraud does non happen, otherwise they will be held responsible and penalized. The act requires all listed companies to hold audit commissions which will be responsible for finding their audit fees and naming hearers, thereby guaranting they carry out their work decently. These audit commissions must dwell of independent managers who must non, in whatsoever circumstance, obtain confer withing and non-board fees from the company, thereby beef uping their independency from the company. Audited account houses are prohibited from functioning as hearers of a peculiar house for a twelvemonth, if it so occurred that the CEO, CFO, or main accounting officer of the audited house has in any manner participated in the company ‘s audit while employed by the audit house, thereby avoiding any struggle of involvement on the portion of hearers. Another measure taken was the constitution of PCAOB ( Public Company Accounting Oversight Board ) for the debut of stiff processs that will safeguard the hearers ‘ independency from direction and the ordinance of the profession. Besides, the PCAOB was put to supervise the audit of public companies in order to protect the involvement of investors. The Cadbury study was published in 1992 after the prostration of some outstanding UK companies, including Polly Peck. The prostration was chiefly as a consequence of board inadvertence and weak administration systems. The Cadbury study is a study of a commission chaired by Adrian Cadbury which focuses on the agreement of company boards and accounting systems to cut down corporate administration hazards and failures. It recommends the constitution of a non-statutory codification of best pattern and administration issues in listed companies. This was known as the combined codification which was to go the anchor of corporate administration. The codification recommends that board of UK corporations or publically traded companies should include at least three outside non-executive managers effectual internal control systems should be put in topographic point, there should be transparence in its fiscal coverage, and that places of Chairman of the Board ( COB ) and Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) be held by two different persons.PRINCIPLE BASED CODES VERSUS RULES BASED CODESIt can be said that the codifications under the US Code of Corporate Governance ( for illustration, Sarbanes Oxley Act ) are regulations based while those under the UK Code of Corporate Governance ( for illustration, Cadbury study ) are principle based. The US Code of Corporate Governance focuses on quantitative steps such as audit commission and outside managers while the UK Code of Corporate Governance focuses on qualitative steps such as transparence and due diligence. This can be seen in the instance of Enron – although it met the quantitative steps of corporate administration, it failed to run into the qualitative steps. The regulations based codifications can be said to be regulator-led as the SEC are apt for implementing, implementing and supervising codifications of corporate administration, hence, have a one-size-fits all attack and gives small or no room for creativeness, while the rule based codifications on the other manus can be said to be shareholders-led as the stockholders have the right to make up one's mind on what codifications are indispensable and suited to guard their involvement. Harmonizing to Rezaee ( 2008 ) , the rules based attack is seen to be more effectual than the regulations based attack due to the fact that it is more flexible and enables the participants of corporate administration, for illustration hearers, audit commission and managers exercise their professional opinion, thereby, keeping the dependability and quality of the corporate administration system.Your positions as to whether the corporate administration codifications have addressed all the issues raised or whether other countries need to be addressed either through codifications or through companies ain corporate administration processsIt can be concluded that though most of the issues sing the Polly Peck and Enron dirts have been addressed in the codifications of corporate administration, the issue of the audit commission has non been to the full addressed. Although the SEC requires listed companies to hold audit commissions, we believe they should be held more responsible and penalize d if there is a corporate administration failure in the company which they are supervising.

Examination on the Strategic Use of Information Technology in Tanzania Service Industries Essay

Businesses can attain sustainable competitive advantage by utilizing Information Technology (IT) in responding to the changing customers’ needs and changing business environment. (Talebnejad, 2008). This demands the organization to know how to apply this technology, and also devise appropriate and cost effective method for successful implementation. For example in 2004, the study of the relation between investment in IT and sales performance found out that they are positively related. Moreover in the same study, more than 79% of managers believed that IT has a vital role in business success (Talebnejad, 2008). On the same perspective, Tanzania service industry is on the road to great success if the companies and organizations adopt and use IT effectively in transforming their organizations. Service Industry defined Services industry is characterized by the intangible nature of their products. It covers a very wide spectrum of intangible tradable products such as banking, money transfers, insurance, telecommunications, business consultancy, health care, transportation, air travel, distribution services, hotels accommodation, recreational, tour operations, and many others. Tanzania Service Industry Since 1990s, Tanzania government embarked on major economic reforms that aimed at creating competitive financial and market system that that operate on market-oriented economic principles (Mtatifikilo, 1995). Since then, there has been a significant increase in the SMEs operating in different areas of the economy namely services, industry and agriculture. In the 2011 estimates, Tanzania economic growth is services dominated. Growth across Tanzania’s service sector has increased in the last few years relative to agriculture and industry. Agriculture, industry, and service s sectors contribute 27.8, 24.2, and 48 percent of GDP respectively1. Tourism, real estate and business services2 helped the broader service sector growth to an estimated 48 percent of Tanzania’s GDP in 2011. Information Technology (IT) â€Å"Information and Communications Technology (IT) is one of the most potent forces in shaping the twenty-first century. Its revolutionary impact affects the way people live, learn and work and the way government interacts with civil society †¦ The essence of the IT driven economic and social transformation is its power to help individuals and societies to use knowledge and ideas. Our vision of an information society is one that better enables people to fulfill their potential and realize their aspirations. To this end we must ensure that IT serves the mutually supportive goals of creating sustainable economic growth, enhancing the public welfare, and fostering social cohesion, and work to fully realize its potential to strengthen democracy, increase transparency and accountability in governance, promote human rights, enhance cultural diversity, and to foster international peace and stability. Meeting these goals and addressing emerging challenges will require effective national and international strategies† (G8 Okinawa Charter on Global Information Society, 2000) Information Technology (IT) refers to various hardware, software, networking, and data management components necessary for a system to operate. Communication needs are growing at a faster rate than any previous times. Functions such as e-mail, instant messaging, weblogs, video steaming and mobile data communications are some areas which have witnessed dramatic changes. The demand has been the key for rapid growth of big global IT companies such as Google, Apple, Samsung and Microsoft among many others. Tanzania has also witnessed significant growth if the communication sector. One area of interest is mobile communication, with number of subscribers approaching 15 million in 2010 (Behitsa & Diyamett, 2010). Consumer IT Penetration and Proficiency The growth of IT proficiency in Tanzania is encouraging. IT use among young generation is rapidly growing, thanks to many training institutes on ICT skills. The computer market has also grown rapidly. Many consumers have computers or mobile devices with internet access capability. The Tanzania Communications Regulatory Authority (TCRA) estimates 11% of internet penetration countrywide in 2010 consumer survey3. The Tanzania government in collaboration with development partners has also taken some initiatives to improve ICT usage level (Behitsa & Diyamett, 2010). These initiatives include eschools and ICT policy for basic education. The policy is aimed at expanding the reach of ICT skills down to primary schools4. Enterprise IT Adoption To measure IT adoption, we first have to understand why companies decide to adopt IT. The model below gives the factors that influence the adoption of IT in the company. There are factors which are internally driven while others are externally driven (Nguyen, 2009).Studies on IT adoption show that firms adopt IT as a means of survival and/or growth, ability to stay competitive in the market, and/or as innovation ability of the firm. The adoption process may be considered as customer driven (Winter, 2003), a reaction to an outside event, or as business selfinitiative as it focuses on improving efficiency (Corso, Martini, Pellegrini, & Paolucc, 2003). (Siggelkow & Levinthal, 2005) found out that firms go through changes within certain stages of their life cycle or in response to changes of their external environment. (Andries & Debackere, 2006) confirmed this view by pointing out that firms seek IT adoption in response to changes, both internal and external. Inte rnal changes include the life cycle or maturity of the firm and external changes are survival or stability in the market.

Department of Peace Essay

1 Internet is always been a source of information. With just one click, all the information you want to know is right in front of your eyes. It always caters to different topics such as: academics, religion, sports, entertainment and even politics. Today, there is probably hundreds of website that discuss about politics and their relevance to national issues. Such website provides information on what they do and on what they will do in the future. A site of the â€Å"U. S. Department of Defense† provides information that caters the entire American citizen. It allows every concern people to have an access or information regarding the department of U. S. defense. Also, the site enables its reader to have an idea or knowledge about the service that the government is doing for them. It provides different links as to explain everything that the defense is responsible of and to give its readers a chance to understand clearly its purpose. The site actually convinces its readers that the U. S. Department of defense’s main goal is to protect the countrymen. Definitely, the site is successful in inducing the citizen to join and unite as one for peace and humanitarian services through the information they have provided. The site was able to affirm that it is there duty to serve and defend the American people whether saving lives or spreading peace in the community. The values are still in tack and the need to share all the information was manifested clearly in the site. They do not only provide the purpose, mission and vision of the department but they have successfully managed to disseminate information through the site. The U. S. Department of Defense official site is convincing primarily because it showed what the people would want to know. Amidst politics intrigues, the department remains stand still and still uphold to its virtues. The use of this site for understanding the duties and responsibilities of the department gives its reader the capacity to make good judgment and to support the department’s mission and vision. Indeed, the site provided by the U. S. department of defense is capable of persuasion because of its plain and truthful explanation of its purpose and of its current activities that is for the betterment of the country. 2 Another site is the â€Å"U. S. Department of Peace† that also caters for the American people. While the department of defense serves for defending its countrymen and for building peace, the U. S. Department of Peace develops programs and campaigns as to promote peace and for national interest. There main goal is to â€Å"take the field of peace building from the margins of the political† and hopefully, bring it to a better place. They intend to apply peace building as to lessen all the conflicts before it gets even worse. The site also provides ample information regarding the association from its mission, vision, goal and their current focus today. The site indicated that the association is not just about the politics but mainly it’s about the effective and practical way in promoting and developing peace. In the site, they’ve explained that the U. S. department of peace is an association that encourages citizen activist to join in building peace for a prosperous nation. Their intention as a peace alliance is well explained in the site because they have indicated their campaigns, programs and activities. Their means of persuading its readers is credible because they have explained point by point their mission and their plans. At first visit to the site, you’ll automatically recognize that they encourage everyone to subscribe holiday cards and at the same time support the work of the peace alliance. In that way, they encourage the readers to support their campaign and offer them such good card. The use of this technique is probably a best way to encourage people since holidays is fast approaching. Nonetheless, the U. S. department of peace is an association that continue to grow as they progress and plan campaigns. Through the help of volunteers and activist, they continue to develop and put into works all of the association’s plan and goal. The use of the internet to promote the association is one of the best way to explain their purpose as an association and as well as to have a discussion board to all the concern people and to those who wanted to support. Indeed, the site also provided the necessary information and they were able to persuade its readers through their truthful agenda and well explained purpose. 3 A related site entitled â€Å"U. S. Peace Government† is about preventing war and terrorism and promotes peace. The site is for promoting peace and establishes peace-creating groups for the nation and other states. The U. S. peace government is pro-peace and in the site they clearly illustrated their purpose. The peace government is composed of hundreds of American scientist and researchers in medical field. These scientist and experts are capable of strong commitment in terms of leading the nation to peaceful direction. The site also includes the introduction of different programs for developing peace. Their ways of promoting peace in its realistic ways is explained in the site. The main purpose of the site is to share to its reader the possible effect of permanent peace if they developed their programs. Their goal as an organization is very simple and they need not to compete with existing governments but instead they will try to prevent problems from occurring. Upon reading the site, you’ll notice that it is trying to persuade its readers by laying all the facts and there agenda as an organization. Their way of imparting information to its readers is clearly manifested in the site. It also includes their stand and perceptions on the current issues that the government is experiencing now. As said, they are not merely a â€Å"policy think tank† but they will contribute to the development of peace in the country. The site has transformed the association’s mission into a realistic way because they put more information about their goal rather than discussing about other matters. They intend to spread peace all over the nation and lessen the conflict. Indeed, the association has come along way in promoting their mission because there is improvement in the nation. 4 â€Å"Daily Kos† is an on-line blog that tackles about the political issues that the present administration is facing now. Contrary to the previous site that was discuss, Daily Kos is far from what those site is all about. The blog talks about the opinions and the suggestions of different writers who share their thoughts fearlessly without hesitations and doubts. The blog define the very essence of being an opposition and the articles talks about the â€Å"what should the government do† instead of some other not so important matters. The writers of the said blog discussed point by point their stand regarding all the current issues. While they cited all their grievances, there is also a link where you can comment and side your side. The blog indicates their own perception according to their virtues and they are not persuaded by the current government. They stand on their own, believing that the government should improve and most of all focus on other important issues. The blog is not actually pro-peace because instead of delivering good feedbacks for the government, they criticize and find fault in the current administration. With their writings, they manifested the idea of a conflict between the government and its people. Nonetheless, we are all entitled for our freedom of speech and the liberation to address our concerns. We cannot deny the fact that there are disagreements and probably arguments that is widely expressed by people all over the nation not just in the internet. Now if you’re for pro-peace, you’ll not be able to be persuaded by the ideas and opinions of the blog’s writers but instead you’ll end up switching or finding another blog that tackles about peace and promoting it. On the positive side, the blog just shared their insights and probably their way of solving the problems that they think is more practical. The better thing to do is to also get the side of the government and let them take their part in explaining to the people the real agenda and their plans for the government in improving peace and not war. Works Cited â€Å"U. S. Department of Defense. † 2007. 21 November 2007 http://www. defenselink. mil â€Å"The Peace Alliance Campaign to Establish a U. S. Department of Peace. † 2007. 21 November 2007 http://www. thepeacealliance. org â€Å"The U. S. Peace Government. † 2007. 21 November 2007 http://uspeacegovernment. org â€Å"Daily Kos. † 20 November 2007. 21 November 2007 http://www. dailykos. com.

Bodybuilding is unhealthy sport Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bodybuilding is unhealthy sport - Essay Example Nevertheless, bodybuilding is an unhealthy sport, which has sparked criticism from various scholars. Some of the major concerns include; Notably, bodybuilding is not a simple walk in the park or a visit to the gym. It is a process of using various additives meant to expand muscles and ensure various parts of the body grow at advance rates. According to research, body builders require anabolic steroids to realise an outstanding muscle and body mass. In as much as, people have argued against the use of drugs, apparently they promise a higher amount of returns as compared to pure exercise. In special circumstances, competitive bodybuilding encourages the use of different drugs. These additives, however, are not digestible but have long-term effects on the consumers. For instance, drugs like diuretics used during competition are more dangerous than steroids. Despite the availability of exceptional genetics, which support body building and positively respond to it, over half of body builders make use of drugs (Labrada 27). In this light, bodybuilding is a lifestyle trend rather than a health concern intended to improve we ll-being. Based on belief, bodybuilding should be a lifestyle where the people involved combine a good nutrition with training to gain more strength and muscles. However, contrary to belief, body builders have an incredible dieting system aimed at creating a competitive muscle system. It is a sculpting process that takes away more things from the body than the physical admirations depicted in the public domain. In the process of keeping a specific diet, they dehydrate the body; drain the limited energy hence affecting functionality of different organs. Additionally, bodybuilders eat given types of food in excessive quantities not good for the body. For example, many bodybuilders have a habit of eating double or triple what

Use of Satellites by the US Military to Improve Battlefield Awareness Essay

Use of Satellites by the US Military to Improve Battlefield Awareness - Essay Example Evidences in support of this are the depth and range of research on this topic carried out by various scholars and interested parties. Their recent operations and raids have utilized space surveillance as a method of staying alert in the battle field. Technology and military theory, as well as the manner, in which it is applied during war and the impact of the aforementioned on the society, will be looked into keenly with the analysis of the works of various researchers on the topic. Another aspect will be that of information warfare. There are other researches on related topics, which support this view from different angles but with similar findings as will be realized subsequently. Revolution in military affairs has put technology in the right perspective when it comes to battlefield awareness. The US military as history has it, made heavy investments on military technology with space craft's as a priority1. Use of devices that collect data before putting up a plan of attack while at war takes center stage in the US military operation layout. The socioeconomic paradigm of each era in the US reflects on the investments made in ensuring victory over the wars. In so doing, poor return on technological investments scales escalate. Errors in judgments are associated with such technologies resulting to retarded economic progress. This may be referred to as information war that involves a lot of tact in locating targets and monitoring the movement of the opposite parties. Other theorists have made attempts to predict how information warfare has capabilities of providing dominant information awareness about the battle space. Manipulation and exploitation of the enemy electronic system or even destroying the enemy station comes as a preference in times of war. Aerial bombing falls as a strategy of intimidating the enemy. In order to apply it effectively, the US must survey the ground structure and set ups so as to locate the targets. Defenseless cities become devastated and terrify societies other than demoralizing the enemy. Air strikes are the most applied methods of attack; the US military air jet fighters have precise technological devices that take care of space view other than the satellites. The ability of any military to combat the enemies from advancing using cyberspace uses information technology. Information warfare has been the yardstick to cyberspace application in the warfare. A network of satellites acts as a bridge between ideas and action universally. This has enabled a god's eye view of the planet including all ongoing activities. A typical application of this is border incursion, which may be thwarted immediately advances are made. New technology changes the application used in the space warfare at a relatively fast rate2.Technological innovations increase the risk of vulnerability hence the Americans military to keep up their research and advancement in space satellite surveillance. This is not only applied during the war, but through the day to day activities in the military and space sc ience research fields. Peer competitors of the US on a face off proved it all with an attack on US space satellite system, GPS and other communication systems. What followed was a nuclear, electromagnetic burst within the space this destabilized more than 50 percent of the military infrastructure on information that the weapon systems rely. Innovations have brought about changes in the warfare with dramatic change of doctrines within the military. Revolution in the US military may be given a non conclusive definition.

Literature Review Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Literature Review - Research Paper Example rce Management and Performance Sharpening Line of Sight," examines the existing correlation among an organizations management strategy, its human resources, and performance, as its end product; its emphasis was more on the side of the HR practitioners who are in charge of HR functions in a firm. More than their obligation to manage HR activities, according to Buller and McEvoy (2012), HR professionals contribute to how the entire organization performs. The authors have linked the efficiency of HR practitioners to the so-called "line of sight." This points to the level of influence that "an employee has on a performance measure (Jackson, Schuler, & Werner, 2012, p. 407). Therefore, when employees’ line of sight increases, their determination to work efficiently, in order to obtain rewards or incentives, will develop, resulting to an increased level of performance. Also stressed is the relevance of establishing an organizational architecture to enable the firms management to mee ting its goals. On the other hand, Ridder et al.s (2012) article entitled "The Whole is More Than the Sum of its Parts? How HRM is Configured in Nonprofit Organizations and Why it Matters" has explored the usefulness of HRM practices in the context of a non-profit organization (NPO). Similar to Buller and McEvoys (2012) article, Ridder et al. (2012) also mentioned the term architecture in their written piece, but this time it is specified with human resource. Ridder et al. (2012), have studied and provided a picture of how HR architecture is being done through using NPOs as its subject ("Human Resource," 2002). HR architecture shapes a firm’s infrastructure, which takes into account the process of standard selection, response of a supervisor in dealing with problems, promotions as well as pay-change policies. Most of the time, the establishment of HR architecture is dependent on the size of a firm. Buller and McEvoy (2012) did not specify what type of organization is likely to develop

A crime in English Law and Canadian Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A crime in English Law and Canadian Law - Essay Example These two elements are actus reus and mens rea. It is important to note that concurrence of these two elements is mandatory to prove any offence. While existence of these two elements is common in English and Canadian laws, there are some major differences when it comes to their interpretation in these two laws. In order to analyze definition of crime in English and Canadian laws, developing understanding of actus reus and mens rea is imperative. There are varied definitions of crime present in different national and international laws. However, the most recurrent definition is given by Blackburn (1993, p. 5) which defines crime to be â€Å"acts attracting legal punishment that are injurious in some way to the community at large or one or more people within it†. Another Canadian version of this definition is provided by Tappan (1960) which defines crime as â€Å"an intentional act or omission in violation of criminal law (statutory or case law), committed without defense or j ustification, and sanctioned by the state as a felony or misdemeanor (Haggan, 2011).† It is important to note that a crime will only be considered as committed if there is actus reus (guilty act carried out voluntarily) and mens rea (guilty mind leading to intention of committing the act) (Boyd, 2010). Therefore, mens rea and actus reus are the major elements of criminal law. Hence, a crime is a breach of rules defined by the state or any other governing authority. Most of the crimes are considered as offences against the state and community. The definition of crime under Canadian law is relatively similar to the one prevailing in English law. Therefore, the crime occurs when an individual breaches criminal law prevailing in the state voluntarily and with guilty mind (actus reus and mens rea respectively). Both laws also presume innocence of the accused until unless proven guilty. However, Canadian law levies burden of proof on the crown counsel in Canada (Boyd, 2010). There i s also slight variation in the elements of these two laws. In English criminal law, actus Reus and mens rea form the main elements of law. Omission of intent is a third element which is referred to as strict liability. However, in many cases, the criminal intentions are not required to be shown. In such cases, strict liability is applied. On the other hand, elements of Canadian criminal law includes actus reus, mens rea, special circumstances leading to incomplete offences, aiding and assisting in crime (Boyd, 2010). As far as criminal liability is concerned, it forms part of product liability law instead of criminal law. In order to understand differences between these two major elements of criminal law, it is important to analyze how English and Canadian laws consider actus reus and mens rea individually. The origin for actus reus and mens rea is English law and it is adapted in Canadian version of criminal law and other parts of the world as well. Actus Reus itself is a Latin for guilty act and is considered as mandatory criterion for criminal offence. It is important to note that actus reus defines all the elements of an offence other than mens rea which defines one’s state of mind. Actus Reus’ severity is defined by circumstances in which the offence has taken place or its consequences. Hence, the act has to be voluntary and willfully committed in order to fulfill the condition of Actus Reus. There are four types of crimes on the basis of actus Reus which are actions crimes i.e. conduct, state of affairs crimes, result crimes and omission. Actions crimes take place when the consequences of the acts are immaterial. State of affairs

Tourism Policy and Strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Tourism Policy and Strategy - Assignment Example The British tourism industry also faces challenges. David Coleman summarised the problems now facing British countryside as changes to the scenery, e.g. with fewer animals, lack of investment in the countryside and its infrastructure, fewer countryside activities, such as events and shows and lack of enthusiasm from businesses and people. He cited that the local authorities can assist by working with the industry, reviewing the rural infrastructure, e.g. by ensuring temporary footpath closure signs are removed, promoting support for businesses and taking a positive attitude towards planning issues and rural development. ("Working for the Countryside". The growth of international and domestic tourism has been matched by a corresponding increase in the numbers of those who study tourism and its impacts. Indeed, it may even be said that tourism research is one of the academic growth industries of the late twentieth century. A specific example of tourism research is Tomorrow's Tourism To day or Tourism Prospectus. This Prospectus outlines plans for action and responsibilities for delivery for the Department of Culture, Media and Sports (DCMS) and its key partners in five areas. ... (Tomorrow's Tourism Today). The industry is aiming for an industry turnover of 100 billion as a minimum by 2010. The British tourism industry also faces challenges. David Coleman summarised the problems now facing British countryside as changes to the scenery, e.g. with fewer animals, lack of investment in the countryside and its infrastructure, fewer countryside activities, such as events and shows and lack of enthusiasm from businesses and people. He cited that the local authorities can assist by working with the industry, reviewing the rural infrastructure, e.g. by ensuring temporary footpath closure signs are removed, promoting support for businesses and taking a positive attitude towards planning issues and rural development. ("Working for the Countryside").

What do you consider are the essential attributes of an interviewer Essay

What do you consider are the essential attributes of an interviewer and why - Essay Example Hence, the organizations are now trying to authenticate the research by applying the new techniques. There are studies related to mental health, socio-economic and personnel factors. Organizations conducting the researches, involved in planning of interviews and designing of the questionnaires. With an effective discussion, limitations of interviews are confined to avoid any unfairness; as the interview is a vital instrument behind any research or investigation. Therefore an interviewer requires endowing himself with all the attributes necessary to get the proper information. An interviewer needs a proper study of the subject of research, its background and proper understanding of the objective of interview, in a proper way. There are several techniques applied to conduct an authentic interview. The case may vary from a crime to patient in a mental hospital. The body language, way of communication and approach applied matters a lot in the quality of the interview. (Ritchie, Lewis 200 3). An interviewer should always keep in mind, the importance of qualitative value of the research which can be achieved only through primary data collection method; which is totally based on the interview of the native. More exact information you derive from the interviewee, more the research will be authentic. The subject of the study requires a particular kind of approach to make the research fruitful, avoiding any bias. The design of questions planned may have socio-economical, natural, physical and psychological approaches, depending on the objective of the research. Selection of the field for the research, making a team, and a good fieldwork with historical, social and psychological analysis is necessary, before designing the questions for the interview. The interview should be able to reach in depth of an individual, acquiring all the required information from him. Selection of the place of interview and the kind of questions, affects the psychology of the individual which ma y influence in the spontaneity of the information he is giving. Therefore, to get the same in a proper way, the individual should be provided with a contented environment, which encourages him to narrate his story or the incident he has witnessed. As soon as the process of data collection through an authentic interview is completed; a qualitative analysis of collected information is required, to give a proper shape to final research report. Among several approaches of interviewing and researching, the most successful one is a psychological approach. As the information is acquired from a human beings, who are psychological in nature; treating them psychologically, would certainly help gain more factual information than any other approaches. Here we will discuss about the methods of psychological approach of interview. This technique of interview consists of a non-accusatory interview combining both investigative and behavior-provoking questions. This technique of interview has three elements: Factual analysis, interviewing, and investigation. Besides being distinct in their process these elements have a common objective to help the innocent and identify the offender. Interrogating that individual becomes an important task to find out the reality. This technique is useful in extracting information from reluctant suspects. Interviews and investigation both are supported by investigative findings; therefore, a proper analysis of facts can help the interviewer in following ways: Recognize appropriate questioning planning. Increase the possibility to recognize the offender through the interview. unlikely suspects Develop probable

On Dumpster Diving Essay Example for Free

On Dumpster Diving Essay Quite by accident, I found the essay On Dumpster Diving by Lars Eighner on the pages of Seagull magazine. The first lines of it captured my interest considerably, for as I had never read about dumpster diving or scavenging before. On Dumpster Diving is a piece of large Eighner’s work called Travels with Lizbeth (1993), which was based on his own experience of homelessness. The author engages me by telling the origin and meaning of the term Dumpster Diver, presenting his survival guide with specified rules and regulations. Dumpster is a trademark of garbage loading onto trucks system. Dumpster diving involves persons voluntarily climbing into rubbish bins (dumpsters) to find valuables or simply useful items, including food and used clothing. Eighner writes that the life of a beggar traveling without any money opened his eyes to the fact that all those containers with waste are real â€Å"supermarkets† for the poor, and they are not only a source of survival, but also a depositary of high-quality and diverse food. Anyhow, there is a risk in eating such findings. According to Eighner’s experience, taking food out of dumpsters should involve three simple principles: â€Å"using the senses and common sense to evaluate the condition of the found materials, knowing the Dumpsters of a given area and checking them regularly, and seeking always to answer the question, â€Å"Why was this discarded?† Narrator advises to avoid such foods as game, poultry, pork, and egg-based meals. Soft drinks testing should be based on their fizzing vigorously. Being a scavenger, one has to notice the least signs of visible contaminates. Notwithstanding the scavenger has no indemnity of self- intoxication. Later on Lars tells about â€Å"a predictable series of stages a person goes through in learning to scavenge,† in which disgust at the beginning gives way to indiscriminate acquiring of the things. The story also includes information about the â€Å"can-divers† and their way of diving featured as unethical and impudent. The plot of it is neither compound nor rich in events and characters. However, it is thought provoking. The author gives us detailed guidance how to survive being a dumpster diver. Reading the essay, I asked myself right along whether it was the only aim of Eighner to teach us those rules. As the story progressed, I picked up the writer’s conception gradually. His essay exemplifies the wasteful nature of American society and implies that it is the result of materialistic values but also ignorance and lack of understanding. People unreasonably throw out even food that is appropriate for using: â€Å"Students throw out many good things including foodthe item was thrown out through carelessness, ignorance, or wastefulness.†(Eighner) The scavenger can acquire â€Å"boom boxes, candles, bedding, toilet paper, medicine, books, a typewriter, a virgin male love doll, change sometimes amounting to many dollars† in the dumpsters. I suppose the purpose of the article is also to show how immoral is to throw out good food and things, knowing that thousands are starving and suffering from poverty. However, exactly that garbage helps him to survive at difficult times. Eighner’s reasoning for why people are materialistic derives from the concept that they are lost and unsure of what they want. In a way, his short essay On Dumpster Diving, suggests to his readers that to achieve the state of satisfaction, they need to know what they want. He states, â€Å"Almost everything I have now has already been cast at least once, proving that what I own is valueless to someone.† The author himself collects only things that are of benefit to him and leaves the rest for the benefit of others. The article shows that the writer being homeless still keeps his intelligent, clever, and sentimental way of thinking. He emphasises the transience of material being and says, â€Å"Once I was the sort of person who invests material objects with sentimental value. Now I no longer have those things, but I have the sentiments yet.†(Eighner) I think, describing all the rules of dumpster diving Lars Eighner represents us the necessity of keeping the etiquette even in adversity. The breakers of that common law are the â€Å"can-divers.† They, as contrasted with the true scavengers, look only for the money there and mix the contents of the dumpster making it more difficult to find the truly good things, the author explains. The worst in can scroungers’ actions is their audacity to go through individual containers in front of peoples homes, something a true diver would never do. Doing that the can diver finds different prescriptions, diaries and things the owner throws out. It is clear that privacy disclosing would embarrass us. Eighner exclaims against private invasion, thus demonstrating his culture and humanism. The last paragraph where Lars compares himself to ultra-wealthy is the most interesting point of the essay, to my mind. The rich people can acquire anything they like and the money does not stand in the way of doing that. The dumpster diver gets the things from dumpsters free too. Author’s analysis is that the truly rich or the truly poor are those who do not want or need. In his comparison, Lars means that he and the super-rich do not need the items the rest of us do. He can just go out and find them. The narrator tries to show the positives of his profession, but does not overlook the negatives as well, following it with the words: â€Å"Dumpster diving has serious drawbacks as a way of life.† The main idea of Lars Eighner in his essay is to assure us that any hopeless situation has its way out. The life goes on even if you meet difficulties†¦ He calls us for keeping our cultural and ethical talents even when being in the lowest state of life. We may not forget that having materialistic values over moral ones destroys and vitiates us from inside. In the unique voice dry, disciplined, poignant, comic- Eighner celebrates the triumph of the artistic spirit in the face of enormous adversity, thus, inspiring me for true respect.

Classification According To Maturity Biology Essay

Classification According To Maturity Biology Essay INTRODUCTION The human eye is very nearly spherical, with a diameter of approximately 24 mm (nearly one inch). It consists of three concentric layers, each with its own characteristic appearance, structure and functions. From outermost to innermost, the three layers are the sclera, which protects the eyeball; the choroid, which nourishes the eyeball; and the retina, which detects light and initiates neural messages bound for the brain. The eye is partitioned into two chambers, a small anterior chamber and a larger vitreous chamber. Thus the basic layout consists of three concentric layers, two chambers, iris, pupil and the lens (Ross and wilson, 2001). Fig.1 Anatomy of the eye C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled1.png The Lens One of very important optical element of the eye, the crystalline lens, lies right behind the iris. The lens takes its name from its resemblance to a lentil, or bean. In adults, the lens is shaped about 9 mm in diameter and 4 mm in thickness. The lens consists of three distinct parts: an elastic covering, or capsule; an epithelial layer just inside the capsule; and the lens itself. The thin, elastic capsule around the lens has two jobs. First, it moderates the flow of aqueous humor into the lens, helping the lens retain its transparency to light. Second, the elastic capsule moulds the shape of the lens varying its flatness and, thereby, the lens optical power. This variant in optical power is called accommodation. Lens grows throughout the life span; the outer, epithelial layer of lens continues to produce protein fibres that are added to the surface of the lens. Consequently, those protein fibres nearest the centre of the lens are the oldest (some were present at birth), whereas the fibres on the outside are the youngest. Between birth and 90 years of age, the lens quadruples in thickness and attains a weight of 250 mg. In the centre of the lens, the old fibres become more densely packed, producing sclerosis, or hardening, of the lens (Paterson, 1979). For good vision, the lens must be transparent and light must be able to pass through it easily, without loss or deviation. Like the cornea, this transparency depends on the material out of which the lens is made. Of all the bodys parts, the lens has the highest percentage of protein, and its protein fibres are lined up parallel to one another, maximizing the lens transparency to light. Anything that disturbs this alignment such as excess fluid inside the lens reduces its transparency. An opacity (or reduced transparency) of the lens is called a cataract. While some cataracts are minor, barely reducing the transmission of light, others undermine vision to the extent of blindness (Kyselova, 2004). Cataract Cataract is the opacification and crystalline formation of eye lens, associated with the breakdown of the eye lens micro-architecture, which interferes with the transmission of light onto the retina. Several biochemical processes for example, calcium deposition, oxidative stress, phase transition, altered epithelial metabolism, crystalline precipitation, calpain-induced proteolysis and cytoskeletal loss takes place during the development of cataract (Moghaddam, 2005). Fig.2 Normal, clear lens Fig.3 Lens clouded by cataract C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled.png Fig.4 Etiology of cataract (Jacob, 1999) C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled.png TYPES OF CATARACT A. Acquired cataract 1. Age related cataract a) Morphological classification i) Subcapsular cataract Anterior subcapsular cataract mainly associated with fibrous metaplasia of the epithelium present below the lens capsule. Posterior subcapsular cataract lies just in front of the posterior capsule and a clear vacuolated, granular or plaque-like appearance. Near vision is also most often impaired more than distant vision. ii) Nuclear cataract usually begins as an amplification of the changes most often seen with normal aging lens nucleus. It is often related with increased spherical aberration and also with an increased refractive index leading to myopia. Some elderly patients may consequently be capable to read yet again without spectacles. iii) Cortical cataract may be associated with the anterior, posterior or equatorial cortex. The opacities begin as clefts and vacuoles between lens fibres because of hydration of the cortex. Both cortical and subcapsular cataracts are white on oblique illumination and show black colouration, silhouetted against the red reflex, on retroillumination. b) Classification according to maturity i) An immature cataract means partially opaque lens. ii) A mature cataract means completely opaque lens. iii) A hypermature cataract means the leakage of water from the lens it leads to wrinkled and shrunken anterior capsule. iv) A morgagnian cataract means the total liquefication of lens cortex like hypermature cataract and it allows the lens nucleus to shrink inferiorly (Hejtmancik, 2004). 2. Presenile cataract Cataract may develop early in the following conditions, a) Diabetes mellitus Typically diabetic cataract is rare. In hyperglycemic conditions, the aqueous humor secretes high level of glucose and this excess of glucose diffuses into the lens. Aldosereductase metabolises glucose to sorbitol, which then accumulates in the lens, resulting in secondary osmotic over hydration of the lens substance. Nuclear opacities are common and tend to grow rapidly. Premature dystrophy may be seen due to decreased pliability of the lens. b) Myotonic dystrophy About 90% of patients, in third decade have fine cortical iridescent opacities, which evolve into visually disabling stellate posterior subcapsular cataract by the fifth decade. c) Atopic dertmatitis About 10% of patients with severe atopic dermatitis develop cataracts in the second to fourth decades. The opacities are often bilateral and may mature quickly. Shield like anterior subcapsular plaque which wrinkles the anterior capsule is characteristic. Posterior subcapsular opacities resembling a complicated cataract may also occur. 3. Traumatic cataract Trauma is the major risk factor for unilateral cataract in individuals. The following risk factors are involved in traumatic cataract, a) Direct penetrating injury to the lens. b) Concussion may cause an imprinting of iris colour on the anterior lens capsule (Vossius ring) as flower shaped cortical opacities (rosette cataract). c) Electric shock and lightening are rare causes. d) Ionizing radiation. e) Infrared radiation- In glassblowers, the IR rays causes exfoliation of the lens capsule which results in thickening of the superficial portion of the capsule and it further splits the deeper layer and protrudes into the anterior chamber. B. Drug induced cataract a) Steroidal drugs may induce cataract. Initially the lens opacities formed in posterior subcapsular region spreads into the anterior region. The relation between dose, duration of administration and the cataract development is unclear. It is understood that children may be more at risk to the cataractogenic effects of systemic steroids and genetic susceptibility may also be of significance. Patients who develop lens physiological changes should have their dose decreased to a minimum, reliable with control of the underlying disease, and if feasible be considered for alternate drug therapy. Premature opacities may regress if therapy is discontinued, alternatively progression may occur despite withdrawn and warrant surgical intervention. b) Chlorpromazine may cause the deposit of innocuous fine, stellate, yellowish brown granules on the anterior lens capsule within the papillary area. The deposition of granular material may accumulate on the corneal endothelium and deep stroma. Both lenticular and corneal deposits are dose -related and irreversible. In very high doses (>2400 mg daily), this drug may cause retinotoxicity. c) Lens opacities may occur due to the irregular use of Busulphan (Myleran) for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia. d) Amiodarone, used in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias, causes visually inconsequential anterior subcapsular lens deposits in about 50% of patients on moderate to high doses. e) Gold used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, causes harmless anterior capsular deposits in about 50% of patients on treatment for more than 3 years. f) Allopurinol, used in the treatment of hyperuricaemia and chronic gout, increases the risk of cataract formation in elderly patients, if the cumulative does exceeds 400 g or duration of administration exceeds 3 years. C. Secondary cataract A secondary (complicated) cataract grows as a result of some other primary ocular diseases. i. Chronic anterior uveitis is the main cause of secondary cataract. The earliest finding is a polychromatic lustre at the posterior pole of the lens which may not progress if the uveitis is arrested. If the inflammation persists, posterior and anterior opacities developed may progress to maturity. ii. Acute congestive angle closure glaucoma may cause small grey white anterior, subcapsular or capsular opacities within the papillary area. a. Myopia (Pathological) is linked with posterior subcapsular lens opacities and early-onset nuclear sclerosis, which may ironically increase the myopic refractive error. Simple myopia, however, is not associated with such cataract formation. b. Hereditary dystrophies such as retinitis pigmentosa, gyrate atrophy, leper congenital amaurosis and stickler syndrome may be associated with posterior subcapsular lens opacities. Cataract surgery may occasionally improve visual acuity even in the presence of severe retinal changes (Kanski et al., 2003). Free radicals involved in cataractogenesis Free radicals may be formed either by the reduction of molecules by electron transfer or by the haemolytic cleavage of covalent bond. Both these reactions may be enzymatic or non-enzymatic. Due to the presence of an odd unpaired electron in its outermost orbital, these free radicals are unstable and readily react with neighbourhood molecules and extract electrons from them, converting the attacked molecule into a few radical, which in turn attacks another molecule generating more free radicals and so on. This enables free radicals to induce chain reactions that may be thousands of events long. A free radical reaction is terminated by reaction between two free radicals or neutralization by antioxidants (Uday et al., 1999). Fig.5 Pathways of ROS formation C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 3.png Generation of free radicals Biological free radicals include reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, reactive sulphur species, free radicals obtained form xenobiotics. a) Superoxide anion radical (O2.-) It is generated from NADPH oxidase and from mitochondria. i) NADPH oxidase is present in the lysosomal cell membranes. It steals electron from O2 resulting in the formation superoxide anion radical (O ·2-). It is converted to hydrogen peroxide and is a spontaneous reaction which is known as respiratory burst. This hydrogen peroxide may react with the chlorine in the presence of myeloperoxidase to form hypochlorous acid or it may produce hydroxyl radicals, by the Fenton reaction which uses the metal ion Fe3+. ii) From Mitochondria: Ubiquionone, which is a terminal acceptor of electron, is converted to semiquinone (free radical). By reacting with O2, it forms (O ·2-) super oxide radical with H2O2, it produce hydroxyl radical ion. b) Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 SOD It is formed by the dismutation of superoxide by the enzyme superoxide dismutase. O · 2 + O ·2 Hydrogen peroxide is generated from i) Aminoacid oxidases: Flavin is a co-enzyme required for the oxidative deamination of amino acid. The reduced flavin attacks molecular oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide. ii) Xanthine oxidase: Xanthine oxidase catalyses the conversion of hypoxanthine to xanthine and hydrogen peroxide is released from molecular oxygen. iii) Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes is the site of  Ã‚ ¢-oxidation of fatty acids.  Ã‚ ¢- Oxidation of the fatty acids is catalysed by acetyl co-enzyme-A dehydrogenase. During this process, a co-enzyme called FAD which donates two electrons gets reduced to FADH2. Again it is converted to FAD. During that process it gives out O2 and H2O (Kovaceva et al., 2007). c) Hydroperoxyl radical They are highly lipophillic and capable of initiating lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxidation Lipid peroxidation is a self- perpetuating common process and involves the conversion of lipid components from cell organelles into lipid peroxides resulting in the formation of a pigment known as lipofuscin. Lysosomic reactive oxygen species are formed as a result of complex oxidative chain reactions in mitochondria during energy production. H2O2 formed in smaller amounts by mitochondria pass through walls of lysosome and react with Fe (II) in a reaction known as Fenton reaction to form potent hydroxyl radicals which cause lipid peroxidation (Halliwell, 2001). Malondialdehyde is the major reactive aldehyde resulting from the peroxidation of biological membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). MDA, a secondary product of LPO, is used as an indicator of tissue damage by a series of chain reactions. MDA is a by-product of prostaglandin biosynthesis. It reacts with thiobarbituric acid and produces a red-coloured product. MDA is a mutagenic and genotoxic agent that may contribute to d evelopment of human cancer. Ca2+ ATPase The Ca2+ ATPase is a transport protein in the cells that serves to eliminate calcium (Ca2+) from the cell. It is essential for maintaining the amount of Ca2+ within the cells. Based upon the electrochemical gradient calcium ion enter into the cells through the trans membrane. This process is important for the cell signalling by which it lowers calcium level. Thus it is necessary for the cell to utilize ion pumps to remove the Ca2+. The Ca2+ ATPase is expressed in a variety of tissues, together with the brain (Hightower et al., 1982). IN VIVO MODELS IN CATARACT (Gupta, 2004) 1. Sugar cataract i) Galactose induced cataract The changes associated with galactose cataractogenesis include the initial reduction of galactose into dulcitol through intervention of aldose reductase with NADPH as a co-factor. Accumulation of dulcitol in the lens, (since it is not metabolized) creates cellular hypertonicity associated with and/or followed by a cascade of events, which includes an influx of water, swelling of the lens fibres, epithelial cell edema, damage of plasma membrane, compromise of cellular permeability, a drop in myinositol level, a reduction in Na+ K+ ATPase activity an influx of Na+ and Cl- and an efflux of K+ and the loss of glutathione and aminoacids. These are the morphological, biochemical, enzymatic and molecular alterations in the lens associated with galactose cataracts. ii) Alloxan induced cataract Alloxan is a cyclic urea analog which is highly reactive molecule that is readily reduced to dialuric acid, which is then auto oxidized back to alloxan resulting in the formation of hydroxyl radical, O2.-, including H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). However, the other mechanism reveals the ability of alloxan to react with protein sulfhydryl groups on hexokinase, a signal recognition enzyme in the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells that couples changes in the blood glucose concentration to the rate of insulin secretion. By this mechanism, inhibition of glucokinase and other SH containing membrane proteins on the ÃŽ ²-cells would eventually result in cell necrosis within minutes. iii) Streptozocin induced cataract Diabetes related cataractogenic changes are seen in the animals injected with streptozocin. This streptozocin initiates cytotoxic action in pancreatic ÃŽ ² cells because sreptozocin contain glucose molecule and highly reactive nitrosourea side chain. It binds to the membrane receptor to generate structural damage. At the intracellular level three major phenomena are responsible for ÃŽ ² cell death, i) Methylation ii) Free radical production iii) Formation of Nitric oxide (NO). The damage caused to ÃŽ ² cells alters the sugar metabolism leading to diabetes. 2. Selenite induced cataract Selenite cataract resembles human cataract in many ways such as insoluble protein, vesicle formation, increased calcium, reduced glutathione (GSH) and decreased water-soluble proteins. However, selenite cataract shows no high molecular weight protein aggregation or increased disulfide formation and is dominated by rapid calpain-induced proteolytic precipitation, while senile cataracts may be produced by prolonged oxidative stress. 3. Naphthalene induced cataract Naphthalene is oxidized in the liver initially to an epoxide and then it converted into naphthalene dihydrodiol. This stable component is converted enzymatically into dihydroxynaphthalene to reaching the eye. Being unstable at physiological pH, 1, 2- dihydroxynaphthalene and spontaneously autooxidises to 1, 2- naphthoquinone and H2O2 . It alkylates proteins, glutathione and aminoacids and generates free radicals. 4. Glucocorticoid induced cataract Glucocorticoid cataract results in the formation of steroid- adduct protein, induction of transglutaminase and reduction of ATPase activity may lead to cataract. Steroid cataracts are produced by the activities of glucocorthicoids and progressed by way of production of oxidative stress similar to other types of cataract. 5. L- Buthionine S, R- Sulfoximine (BSO) induced cataract Glutathione is present in mammalian lens in high concentrations and is involved in the protection of lens against oxidation. In most of the cataracts the decrease in its level is observed. 6. Smoke induced cataract Cigarette smoke contains trace and heavy metals. The increased metal contents in lens cause lens damage by the mechanism of oxidative stress-forming oxygen radicals, via metal catalyzed Fenton Reaction. In other words cigarette smoke is associated with the accumulation of iron and calcium. 7. UV radiation induced cataract Epidemiological studies have exposed a link between exposure to UV radiation in sunlight and development of cataract. Experimental studies confirm that ultraviolet (UV) radiation induces cataract. There is, however, a lack of data on the age dependence in experimental UV radiation-induced cataract. 8. Microwave induced cataract Microwave radiation has been reported to produce posterior subcapsular and cortical cataracts in rabbits and dogs within a short span of time. 9. Transforming Growth Factor ÃŽ ² (TNFB) induced cataract TGFB is induced by injecting approximately 60 ng TGFB into the vitreous. TGFB induce lens epithelial cells to undergo molecular modify and abnormal morphologic that mimic the changes observed in human posterior subcapsular and cortical cataract (Gupta, 2004). IN VITRO MODELS IN CATARACT (Gupta, 2004) Induction of cataract in isolated animal lenses maintained in organ culture has become a convenient, quick and appropriate method for testing the anticataract efficacy of an agent. Opacification of lens is induced by generating oxidative stress/ hyperglycemic/ hypergalactosemic conditions around the lens by supplementing the culture medium with a variety of exogenous substances. 1. Oxidative stress induced cataract Oxidative mechanisms play an important role in many biological phenomena including cataract formation. Formation of the superoxide radical in the aqueous humor, lens and its derivatization to other potent oxidants may be responsible for initiating various toxic biochemical reactions leading to the progress of cataract. In vitro such cataracts are induced by agents like selenium, H2O2, photosensitizers and enzyme xanthine oxidase. 2. Selenite induced cataract In vitro cataract is produced by supplementing the tissue culture medium with 25 to 100 mM sodium selenite in which freshly enucleated transparent rat lenses are incubated at 370C. This causes membrane damage and faint cortical opacities within 24 h. 3. Photochemically induced cataract Riboflavin, a photosensitizer, is supplemented in the culture medium to induce cataract in cultured lenses. Micro quantities (4-200  Ã‚ ­M) of riboflavin lead to severe physiological damage and opacification within 24 h after exposure to light. The initial membrane damage is evidenced by a disturbed cation ratio between lens water and the medium of incubation. Riboflavin on getting photosensitized generates free radicals in a sequence of reactions. Lenses are maintained in organ culture for 24 to 72 h. The lenses are divided into four groups and incubated in the dark and light both in presence and absence of riboflavin. The lenses are exposed to light with two 15-w daylight fluorescent lamp placed at 8 inches above the cluster plate. The culture medium is replaced every 24 h. Riboflavin shows no effect on the lens in the absence of light, and light without riboflavin has no significant effect. opacification starts in the equatorial zone and gradually extends towards the centre of the lens. 4. Enzymatically induced cataract Supplementation of culture medium with 1 mM xanthine and 0.1 unit xanthine oxidase, which act as substrate and enzyme respectively, leads to generation of superoxide radical. The lenses suffer severe oxidative damage and turn opaque within 24 h when incubated in culture medium at 370C. 5. Hydrogen peroxide induced cataract Incubation of lenses in medium containing 50-500  Ã‚ ­M H2O2 and it produce cataract. Opacification starts in the equatorial region within 24 h. The entire superficial cortex becomes opaque by 96 h. Due to the high instability of H2O2, the medium is changed every 2 h during the first eight hours. 6. Sugar induced cataract Transparent and undamaged lenses are incubated in a basis culture medium with fetal calf serum for 24 to 48 h. In the control group the medium is supplemented with glucose (30 mM), lenses develop opacity in the subcapsular region on day 1 and in the central region on day 2. Biochemical analyses reveal raised polyol, malondialdehyde levels and water content, and decreased glutathione levels in these lenses. 7. Steroid induced cataract Steroid-induced experimental cataract is produced in vitro by incubating the transparent lenses in the medium containing methyl prednisolone (1.5 mg/ml). The test agent and methyl prednisolone added alone and together to the medium form drug control, control and treated groups respectively. Early cataract around the equator is produced within 24 h of incubation. Incubation period may be extended to 48 h for dense opacity. Morphological changes and modulation in biochemical parameters between the groups may show the potential of the anticataract agent. 8. Naphthalene induced cataract TC-199 medium is used for the preincubation of lens. Stock solution of napthalene dihydrodiol is prepared in 20% ethanol at 2.5-10-3 M concentration. The stock solution is diluted 1:100 to obtain the final concentration of 25.5 -10-5 M. The final osmolarity of the solution is 295-300 m Osmol. Rat lenses are incubated in TC-199 medium containing napthalene metabolite solution. Medium is renewed daily till 72 h. Lenses remain clear during the initial 24 h but from shell-like opacity around the nucleus by 48 h. Opacification becomes more peripheral and widespread after 72 h. At 48 h, under such conditions of incubation, development of opacity mimics the in vivo napthalene cataract. Naphthalene is oxidized in the liver first to an epoxide and then is altered into naphthalene dihydrodiol. This stable component on reaching the eye gets converted enzymatically to dihydroxynaphthalene. Being unstable at physiological pH, 1,2 dihydroxynapthalene sponaneously auto oxidises to 1,2 naphthoquinon e and H2O2. It alkylates proteins glutathione and amino acids and generates free radicals. There is a loss of protein thiol in this reaction and the products are less easily digestible by pancreatin than normal lens protein (Rees and Pirie, 1967). 9. Ca2+ induced cataract In this model, the control group contains the lenses incubated in the medium enriched with 20 mM Ca2+ or 1x 10-2 mM A23187 calcium ionopore. The treatment group lenses are cultured in the calcium and the test drug-containing medium. Incubation period can range from 24-72 h (Gupta, 2004). Fig.6 Mechanism of action of glucose-induced cataract C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 7.png Under physiological conditions, glucose is metabolized through the glycolytic pathway. An excess amount of glucose is converted to sorbitol by enzyme aldose reductase via polyol pathway. The glucose conversion into sorbitol by utilizing NADPH results in the reduction of NADPH/NADP+. Moreover, sorbitol undergoes oxidation to fructose by using sorbitol dehydrogenase (SD). Sorbitol does not easily cross cell membrane. Intra lenticular accumulation of sorbitol, leads to lens damage (Kyselova, 2004). Fig.7 Biomorphological changes during cataract formation C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 66.png As, the lens starts to swell in response to the hyper osmotic effects of polyol accumulation, membrane permeability changes resulting in an increase in lenticular sodium and decrease in the levels of lenticular potassium, reduced glutathione, ATP and free amino acids. The overall antioxidant status of the lens decreases because of depletion of GSH (Kyselova, 2004). Mechanism of action of calcium-induced cataract Fig.8 Calcium transport pathway Increased levels of lenticular calcium activate calcium dependent proteases. The activated proteases hydrolyze cytoskeletal proteins and lens crystalline. Crystalline cleavage would result from lower molecular weight peptides that could, in turn, aggregate to form higher molecular weight proteins (Wang et al., 1996). Various methods for the prevention of cataract The development of newer drugs for treatment of cataract mainly aims, interacting at the level of changed lens metabolism and lens pathophysiology. The in vitro, in vivo studies are used to identify the anti cataract agents. This epidemiological studies may be widely classified in the following categories (Gupta et al., 1997). Aldose reductase inhibitors Agents acting on glutathione Nonsteroidal anti -inflammatory drugs Vitamins, minerals and antioxidants Miscellaneous agents. 1) Aldose Reductase Inhibitors These drugs are aimed to prevent the metabolic dysfunctions of diabeties by polyol pathways. Aldose reductase inhibitors prevents the accumulation of sorbital within the lens would have an osmotic effect bringing in water and causing swelling and opacification. Sorbinil a spirohydantoin became the most powerful sorbitol lowering agent. Sorbinil prevents increased fluorescence and protein aggregation and it also acts as an antioxidant. 2) Non Steroidal Anti inflammatory Drugs The NSAIDS broadly studied are paracetamol, aspirin, Ibuprofen, sulindac, naproxen, and bendazec. The NSAIDS provide adequate productive effect to lens protein through various steps like acylation, carbamylation and inhibition of glycocylation. Some of them are also reported to inhibit lens AR to varying extent. NSAIDS contains antioxidant properties also. Most of the studies on the evaluation of anticataract potential of drugs have been conducted by feeding the drugs by oral route. 3) Agents which act on glutathione Glutathione is a tripeptide thiol known to control calcium inflex and protect lens protein from various agents like glucose and galactose. With advancing of age there is a considerable decrease in the concentration of glutathione and the decrease more prominent in lens with cataract. 4) Vitamins, minerals and antioxidants If oxidation in lens leads to cataract formation, then is feasible to prevent it by the use of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and perhaps ÃŽ ²-carotene. The potential role of vitamins and antioxidants in preventing various diseases is well documented there are reports suggesting beneficial effect of vitamins like C and E in preventing cataract. Beta -carotene has also been demonstrated to protect lens damage by hematoporphysin. Ascorbate protects rubidium uptake against free radical damage and prevents light induced protein cross linking. Protective effect of vitamin C has been also reported in various in vitro studies. Vitamin E has been found to delay cataractogenesis in diabetic rats and in Emory mouse. Vitamins C and E,  Ã‚ ¢- Carotene and other anticataract agents probably act via a common mechanism of their scavenging properties of free radicals (Gupta et al., 1997b). Antioxidant enzymes 1) Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) SODs are a family of metalloenzymes that transfer superoxide in to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and represents the first line of defence against oxygen toxicity. 2O2- + 2H → H2O2 + O2 Three isoforms of SOD have been found. The first is mainly found in the cytoplasm of cells and it containing Cu and Zn at its active site (Cu/Zn SOD-1), the second containing Mn at its active site is located in mitochondria (Mn SOD-2) and the third (Cu/Zn SOD-3) is present in the extracellular fluid like plasma. SOD is a stress protein which is synthesized mostly in response to oxidative stress. It is found that little amount of Cu, Zn and Mn metals are crucial for maintaining the antioxidant activity of SOD (Halliwell, 1994; Ray and Husain, 2002). 2) Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) GPx is one of the most important enzymes responsible for the degradation of organic peroxides and hydrogen peroxide in the brain. GPx catalyse the oxidation of GSH to GSSG at the expense of H2O2. There are two isoforms have been identified, selenium-dependent which is highly active towards H2O2 and organic hydroperoxides and selenium independent GPx. GPx activity has been reduced in selenium deficiency (Muller et al., 1984; Son et al., 2007). 3) Catalase (CAT) It is a heme-containing protein present in most cells. 2H2O2+ 2H2O → O2 Catalase is 104 times faster than GPx. It is having four protein subunits, each containing a heme Fe (III)-protoporphyrin group bound to its active site. GPx and CAT were found to be important in the inactivation of many environmental mutagens (Ray and Husain, 2002). 4) Glutathione (GSH) GSH has major intracellular antioxidant molecule and it is a tripeptide synthesised by enzymatic reaction involving two molecules of ATP from aminoacids like glutamate, glycine and cysteine. It plays a very crucial role in detoxification of peroxides and electrophilic toxins, mainly by acting as a substrate for GSH transferase and GSH peroxidase. It was shown that weakening of GSH enhances cerebral ischemic injury in rats (Mizui et al., 1992; Son et al., 2007).

Using The Strategy Of Preemption For Preventing Terrorism Politics Essay

Using The Strategy Of Preemption For Preventing Terrorism Politics Essay Terrorism is a broad phenomenon which can have many subjective interpretations. Even if its definitions vary widely, it is well known that terrorism relies on the use of violence and it can be seen as a result of bargaining failure. Terrorist actions are carried out by non-state actors and are designed to achieve specific political changes. In order to achieve their objectives, terrorists are looking for different targets which, hit, assure not only a considerable loss, but also a psychological impact on public opinion, endangering human lives, values systems, standards and political systems. As terrorism became a global issue, states adopted different strategies such as defensive measures, preemption, or negotiation and compromise in order to prevent and fight against it. In this essay I will analyze one of the strategies mentioned above, the strategy of preemption against terrorism and I will examine its costs and benefits. In the first part of my essay I will present this strategy in detail, explaining what it represents and how it can be adopted. In the second part of this essay I will emphasize the costs and the benefits of this strategy, giving certain examples. I will also try to explain in what sense it can increase support for groups who are using terrorist strategies. In the end, I will state my conclusion, based on arguments. The strategy of preemption is based on taking the initiative and destroy terrorist networks before they attack. This strategy can be applied by destroying terrorist camps or their hiding places, or by assasinating them. This was the most outstanding strategy adopted by the Bush administration as a response to the terrorist attacks on 9/11. In September 2002, the President George Bush emphasised the need of using this strategy in order to preempt attacks from states which may posses weapons of mass destruction. Both wars in Afghanistan and Iraq were justified by the President of the U.S. as ways of preventing terrorism.(Haynes, Jeffrey. World Politics. Harlow: Longman/Pearson, 2011. Print) As it has recentely been adopted by the U.S, terrorism preemption could be defined as those offensive military and associated actions by the services and other appropriate agencies that are initiated against terrorists, their organizations, supporters,and sponsor states to prevent or deter acts or c ampaigns of terrorism directed against US citizens and interests.( Sloan, Stephen 2000:39 ) The terrorist attacks on 9/11 had a great impact not only in U.S., but also on the whole international security context. Before these events, the imbalance and balance between the states represented a normal geopolitical framework, but which was seriously affected because of the emergence and development of civil, nongovernmental and transnational organizations which took the shape of terrorist organizations. Washington is dealing with actions carried out by terrorist organizations including Al-Qaeda, which is the most important. European Union may be destabilized quite seriously, if it will not manage effectively with the fate of millions of Islamists whose political culture is totally different from the liberal democratic system. There is emphasized the idea that the destabilization of the current world order has its roots in Washingtons failure in Iraq. Also, it is quite certain that it could reach the same result even if the U.S. intervened elsewhere than in Iraq or Afghanistan. It could reach the same result even if it did not intervene at all, anywhere, because the danger comes from non-state actors, who are determined to end the existence of states, civilizations and cultures that seem to be in conflict with their religious believes. (Amoore, Louise, and Marieke De Goede. Risk and the War on Terror. London: Routledge, 2008. Print.), (Baylis, John, Steve Smith, and Patricia Owens. The Globalization of World Politics: an Introduction to International Relations. New York, NY: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.), (Chomsky Noam, Hegemonie sau supravieÃ…Â £uire. America à ®n căutarea dominaÃ…Â £iei globale, BucureÃ…Å ¸ti, Ed. Antet, 2003) Fighting against terrorism represents a war, strategies made in detail, not only large-scale actions such as the counterblast of the U.S and their allies in Afghanistan and Iraq. It is a conflict that depends on political decisions, information technology and on the capability of mobilizing the resources. The year 2003 represented an important moment during this fight against terrorism, even from its beginning, when in March, the war started in Iraq. The campaign from Iraq is unique, characterized by shock, by the precise usage of the ammunition which occurred at a scale as has never been, and also by the use of overwhelming forces. Using well prepared strategies, allowed the execution of the operation in a sustained manner and minimized the collateral damage. (Amoore, Louise, and Marieke De Goede. Risk and the War on Terror. London: Routledge, 2008. Print.) This brings me to the second part of this essay. Even if the good strategies used during the war minimized the loss, the strategy of preemption remains very costly in many ways. First of all, surveillance must be continuous; otherwise it will be impossible to prevent all the terrorist attacks. Secondly, tracking all the possible terrorist activities is also a hard and costly activity. More than these, surveillance can violate the civil liberties of innocent citizens. Accomplishing all of these, an important amount of financial and human resources are needed. The key to an effective fight against terrorism is the accountability of the democratic states, a process of strengthening their institutional instruments, in order to apply better and strictly impose the law. In the same time, the democratic states have to be trained in an international cooperation of preventing and fighting against terrorism from a political, economical, social and military perspective. The international cooper ation is essential for an efficient monitoring system of the terrorist threat.( Andreescu, Anghel, and Nicolae Radu. OrganizaÃ…Â £iile Teroriste Conceptualizarea Terorii vs Securitatea Europeană. Bucuresti: M.I.R.A, 2008. Print.) Another problem of this policy is that preemption itself is illegal under the international law, which makes it impossible to finance it and to be supported by many countries. There is though an exception of this law, an exception which allows a strategy of preemption when it is known for sure that a state will be attacked. This law appeared right after the Second World War, and because of that it refers to a military threat from other states. Regarding the fact that terrorist networks act on their own, without asking approval from any state, the strategy of preemption can not be approved by the UN. (Shue, Henry, and David Rodin. Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.) Of course, making public the adoption of such strategy of fighting against terrorism in certain areas, can draw the attention of the terrorist groups and they can use these information to prepare themselves. This will make defeating them much harder and will take much longer than expected. Using preemption as a long term strategy and by attacking all the people involved in terrorist activities, terrorists will be able to adapt themselves and be prepared for a war, knowing the strategies of the target country from previous attacks. This is why, from a practical perspective, this strategy can be used only on a short term. (Chomsky Noam, Hegemonie sau supravieÃ…Â £uire. America à ®n căutarea dominaÃ…Â £iei globale, BucureÃ…Å ¸ti, Ed. Antet, 2003 ) The most important aspect is, when talking about a strategy of preemption, the amount of money spent on financing the war which will prevent a terrorist attack. Since the events on 9/11, the U.S. spent a huge amount of money in order to financially support the war of terror. The Americans invaded Iraq because, as Bush administration affirmed, it was financially supporting terrorism and was possessing weapons of mass destruction. This invasion caused instability in the U.S economy. The economist Joseph Stiglitz said in 2008 that the U.S adventure in Iraq is more expensive than any war that has ever been fought. More than that, 4.421 Americans died when the invasion started, in March 2003 and 32.000 were hurt during the attacks. Almost 100.000 of Iraqi citizens died during the war. In 2009, the U.S. military expenses numbered $663,3 mld, but according to the Congressional Research Service, the costs of the war will be around $802 mld at the and of 2011. (Rosca, Cristina, and Andreea Neferu. US Ended the War in Iraq. Financial Newspaper 1 Sept. 2010. Print.) As it can be seen, the costs of a preemtive war are very high, and not only from a financial point of view. Besides the costly military operations and the suffering caused to civilians, the strategy of preemption also leads to a ruined infrastructure. After the terrorist threat will be removed, more funds will need to be allocated to pay for the reparations that the war caused. Another fact that needs to be noticed when talking about preemption is that foreign countries may find this strategy a disproportionate response to the terrorist threat. Because, by definition, preemptive actions occures before a terrorist attack, the target countries may have good reasons to exaggerate the real threat . Also, because predictions can be sometimes deviant, other states may remain skeptical on this strategy when a country adoptes it. The decision that the Bush administration took regarding the invasion of Afghanistan was seen by many states necessary and totally justified after the attacks on 9/11. On the other hand, the decision of expanding the war from Afghanistan to Iraq, which was never linked with the terrorist attacks that took place on 9/11, excepting by the Bush administration, made people from all around the world to fear a possible invasion. Now, the countries worldwide were at risk of preemptive war if they were accused for terrorism actions or for financia lly supporting terrorism. Many foreign governments opposed to this actions which was seen by them as a violation of the sovereignty of a country.(Haynes, Jeffrey. World Politics. Harlow: Longman/Pearson, 2011. Print.) Using the strategy of preemption, even for fighting against terrorism, can result in more support from the people for those who are carrying out the attacks. As I have mentioned above, preemptive actions can cause many damages in the states accused by terrorist actions. Ruining the infrastructure of a country, and more than that, causing suffering to innocent civilians will make the citizens of that country fight against the state that attacked them, and even support the terrorist networks. In the case of the U.S actions, even if they gained many allies to fight with against terrorism, the Americans also made many enemies in the countries they attacked. When talking about preemption, some people sustain the idea of self-defence, justifying the actions that need to be taken according to this strategy. Other people, espacially those who opposed to the Iraq War, deny the fact that a preemptive action could be ever justified. (Shue, Henry, and David Rodin. Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007. Print.) In conclusion, the strategy of preemption, used in fighting against terrorism is not totally effective. Even if it seems to remove the terrorist threat and it is seen in some countries as one of the best actions that a stat can adopt against terrorism, it can be very costly because of the military operations that it involves. On a first sight it seems to be working but, in order to state this sentance, the damages that it may cause need to be excluded. It can violate the civil rights, it seems to have a lack of legitimacy, creates suffering among civilians, can make more people suport the terrorist networks and, probably the most important aspect, it can not be adopted for a long term period.